Figures 1 & 2 show representative advertisements in papers across the nation, The Salt Lake Tribune (above) and The Los Angeles Times (below). Each were in the classifieds around the same time period of February and March, 1995
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JULIO BERMUDEZ & KEVIN KING
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Published in: Kalisperis & Kolarevic (Eds.): ACADIA 1995. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, pp.405-423 (1995)
© copyright 1995 Julio Bermudez & Kevin King. All rights reserved.
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As both the skepticism and 'hype' surrounding electronic environments vanish under the weight of ever increasing power, knowledge, and use of information technologies, the architectural profession must prepare for significant expansion of its professional services.
To address the issue, this paper offers a survey of the professional services architects and designers do and may provide in digital space, and who the potential clients are. The survey was conducted by interviews with software developers, gaming companies, programmers, investigators, practicing architects, faculty, etc. It also included reviews of actual software products and literary research of conference proceedings, journals, books and newspapers (i.e. articles, classified ads, etc.).
The actual and potential markets include gaming and entertainment developments, art installations, educational applications, and research. These markets provide architects the opportunity to participate in the design of 3D gaming environments, educational software, architecture for public experience and entertainment, data representation, cyberspace and virtual reality studies, and other digital services which will be required for this new world.
We will demonstrate that although the rapidly growing digital market may be seen by some to be non-architectural and thus irrelevant to our profession, it actually represents great opportunities for growth and development. Digital environments will not replace the built environment as a major architectural market, but they will significantly complement it, thus strengthening the entire architectural profession.
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As both the skepticism and 'hype' surrounding electronic environments vanish under the weight of ever increasing power, knowledge, and use of information technologies, the architectural profession must prepare for significant expansion of its professional services.
This expansion may prove to be a difficult task as little discussion, work, or research on the subject exists within the architectural community. The lack of involvement on the part of architects is puzzling considering they have a recognized expertise in using representations and designing 3D environments and structures. The reason for this, appears to be that digital space is predominantly seen as only a virtual studio for real world designs. Such a lack of vision may result in a loss of the potential architectural services that digital worlds will require.
To address the issue, this paper offers a survey of the professional services architects and designers do and may provide in digital space, and who the potential clients are. The survey was conducted by interviews with software developers, gaming companies, programmers, investigators, practicing architects, faculty, etc. It also included reviews of actual software products and literary research of conference proceedings, journals, books and newspapers (i.e. articles, classified ads, etc.).
The actual and potential markets include gaming and entertainment developments, art installations, educational applications and research. These markets provide architects the opportunity to participate in the design of 3D gaming environments, educational software, architecture for public experience and entertainment, data representation, cyberspace and virtual reality studies, and other digital services which will be required for this new world.
We will demonstrate that although the rapidly growing digital market may be seen by some to be non-architectural and thus irrelevant to our profession, it actually represents great opportunities for growth and development. Digital environments will not replace the built environment as a major architectural market, but they will significantly complement it, thus strengthening the entire architectural profession.
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We understand by digital space the computer generated electronic medium that serves as an artificial environment for architectural work. Two visions of digital space are available:
(1) digital space is a studio for the development and testing of architectural products aimed at classical reality.[*1] In this vision, digital space depends on the rules and laws of the physical world and its value is tied to being a representational instrument for worry-free experiments and simulations.
(2) digital space, a reality of representations, is an environment with nature, functions, aesthetics, order, etc., not necessarily following or referring to classical reality. In this world, may people find and generate information, work, meet other people and seek entertainment. According to this vision, architecture should play a major role in the conceptualization, organization, and design of such an alternative reality. In other words, digital space is a virtual place in its own right that has no other justification than offering alternative experiences, structures and events to those of classical reality. Architecture designed for this interpretation of digital space is meant to be constructed in digital space and is not to be a part of the physical world, except to be experienced by people. We will call this architecture digital.
It is the latter vision that will be investigated in this paper. Our intention is not to make yet another philosophical or theoretical argumentation for the value or future of digital space as a self-standing environment. These have been done elsewhere [Anders, 1994; Benedikt, 1991; Negroponte, 1995; Novak, 1991; Rheingold, 1993/1991]. Rather we are interested in demystifying the confusion surrounding the subject by presenting an informal survey of actual and potential short term market opportunities for digital architecture. We believe that this will help to bring into our professional milieu a rapidly growing area that is presently viewed as outside the realm of architectural practice.
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Digital environments have been undergoing structural transformations since their beginning. What started as cryptic, one-dimensional, text-based worlds have evolved into user-friendly, two-dimensional and graphical realms, and more recently into desktop (i.e., flat, screen constrained) three-dimensional, real-time and interactive environments. The widespread availability of three-dimensional immersive interfaces (Virtual Reality) is around the corner. On top of these developments lies cyberspace, an "n" dimensional digital environment that is publicly accessible via multiple networks of computers and telecommunication technologies such as telephone, cable and satellite.
Digital architecture may be called upon to serve in any one or more of these different digital spaces. The programmatic requirements may also be varied to include gaming, entertainment, education, operating systems and databases. As a result, architectural practice in digital space may take on many forms ranging from the design of backgrounds and texture mapping to the design of complete, albeit virtual, buildings/artifacts, experiential events, digital spatial infrastructure, visual interfaces and software coding.
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As it is impossible to fully cover the whole range of markets for digital architecture in the length of this paper, we will present the main areas of development. Some areas may receive more attention than others. This is due to the fact that some areas have greater market potential than others. Companies and individuals may be called upon as examples when specific details or issues demand it. This is to show that what is discussed here and by others is not just theory but actual and as real as traditional built environment architecture.
Our presentation involves only short term (present to 5 years into the future) markets. We will cover long term markets in a future paper. However, many of the short term markets have a life span that will carry them into the future and therefore into long term markets. Some might even develop into other related markets altogether. The intent is not to be prescriptive but to provide a guide so that architects, educators, students and others can make decisions regarding their present and future work. We will keep the level of speculation regarding potential markets to a minimum as the digital field is just beginning and therefore does not allow for major forecasting.
The main short term markets we will discuss are Gaming & Entertainment, Cultural (Art), Educational and Research.
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Gaming & Entertainment Markets
These two markets are sometimes distinct and sometimes blended together. In the following discussion, we will keep them together.
Digital architecture enters the Gaming & Entertainment area as virtual environments that give the mood of the place where the users' adventures take place. 'Architectural design' is done as either an imitation of what exists in the real built environment or as an original creation that may or may not relate to anything that has previously been built. The scenes in these adventure games are rendered realistically and the structures and placement of the buildings in the landscape are intriguing. Architecture is used as a place of reference with backdrops, images and real world simulations, in which the players journey into fantasy worlds. If this use of architecture is literal, and perhaps superficial, great opportunities exist for development beyond the existing patterns. For instance, the popular game Doom allows users to design, add, and exchange new areas and chambers to the default environment.
Adventure and role playing games have existed for several years, but in 1993, a new level was brought to this market as Virgin and Trilobyte released The 7th Guest. It has been followed with the entry of several other role playing and adventure games. These include the releases of Cyan's Myst[*2] and Access's Under A Killing Moon. The 11th Hour, a sequel to The 7th Guest, has just been released this year. Companies have even been created solely for the development of these types of computer games, and more are appearing each year. Access, Strata Inc. and SingleTrac are among the companies who have recently entered, the growing computer gaming market. All three of these companies are located in the state of Utah, and therefore, it is conceivable that there are many more companies throughout the United States and the world who are or will be joining this expanding market in the near future.
Although most of these games are aimed at 2D and occasionally 2.5D PC-generated digital environments, one can clearly foresee that they will eventually become virtual reality entertainment systems in the future. Many observers have pointed out that networked and highly interactive computer games (e.g., Doom and other similar games) are where large areas of cyberspace will be developed.
The electronic Gaming & Entertainment business (totaling over $15 billion worldwide), which is growing at an amazing pace [Negroponte, 1995], undoubtedly represents the largest short term market of digital architecture. With this level of popular demand, investment, and growth the future of Gaming & Entertainment appears bright indeed. Faced with these facts, one wonders what place and role architects should play in the design of such elaborate gaming environments. We have specifically looked at this possibility in both large and small scale companies within the state of Utah. The results however are similar to what is happening elsewhere in California, Minnesota, Massachusetts and New York.
In interviews with a few small game developers, it was found that there is a need for individuals with skills that architects normally possess. These include 3D visualization and design, computer modeling, rendering and animation, organization, planning and creativity. Although these developers are not interested in actually subcontracting the services of an architectural firm, they do have the need for individuals with these skills and talents to work in their art development departments.[*3] The role of these individuals would be similar to that of corporate architects that work in-house in developing designs.
Local game companies have contacted architectural students at our school of architecture for this very reason. These companies felt that their internship development program allows them to turn to individuals that have training and skills in 3D visualization and creative problem solving, such as those in the architecture department, instead of turning to the mathematics, computer science and art departments as they have in the past.
Contacts with professional animators from Minneapolis & New York confirmed these arguments and indicated that the market demand for people skilled in electronic 3D modeling, rendering, animation and art is many times that of labor supply. A collection of classified adds from local and national newspapers demonstrates the reality of this phenomenon.
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Figures 1 & 2 show representative advertisements in papers across the nation, The Salt Lake Tribune (above) and The Los Angeles Times (below). Each were in the classifieds around the same time period of February and March, 1995
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Cultural (Art) Market
The major work in this market is comprised of art displays and shows. Artists, designers and architects have become increasingly active in the exploration of the aesthetic/communication potentials of digital space at many levels. Given the growing interest in electronic media in general and Virtual Reality (VR) in particular, it seems likely that the public would pay to participate in or observe artistic displays or installations much like they do with more traditional art exhibits.
This is by no means a new concept. Myron Krueger created such displays and experiences with the use of lighting, video equipment and computers in the late sixties and seventies (e.g. his Glowflow, Metaplay, Psychic Space and Videoplace art installations) [Krueger, 1991/1983; Rheingold, 1991]. There have been several art installations displaying digital work in the past year at the Guggenheim Museum, the Banff Centre for the Arts, and in Austin, Texas.[*6] This is also happening abroad. The New York firm, Diller & Scofidio Architects, is now working on a VR project for the Pompidou Center in Paris.
The Cultural markets for digital architecture are a more risky venture, but if commissions could be obtained, either as joint ventures with artists or on their own, it would provide publicity for architects and allow the public to see what they have to offer in the realm of digital space design.
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Educational & Other Markets
There is an increasing movement of companies to release reference material, interactive books, etc. on CD-ROM for home, office and institutional use. A publisher of architectural books, John Wiley & Sons Inc., recently issued a survey to evaluate the need and desire for educational CD-ROM's in lieu of traditional books. The use of CD-ROM's is growing in number and tripled during the year of 1994.[*7] According to industry experts, there will be about 60 million homes with PCs with CD drives by 1998 [Pulley, 1995].
This growing market consists mainly of documented existing works of architecture or other real world artifacts. The Ultimate Frank Lloyd Wright: America's Architect, for example takes the user on a multimedia tour of his architecture, city planning and furniture design. The Great Buildings Collection on the other hand, is an encyclopedia of architectural works that includes models, photographic images video and animations. Other educational uses of digital space include, for instance, teaching students methods of design and visualization (e.g. Visualize!). The Great Buildings Collection and Visualize!, are further examples of work that has been done by architects who are currently working as professors of architecture.
This market also has the potential for educational software and interactive books that make learning attractive with innovative and creative environments such as those in Calculus Castle and Forum/America. Calculus Castle, a learning adventure set in a castle environment, takes individuals through a castle as they learn about calculus. The interactive magazine, Forum/America, contains a 'virtual building' which was designed and created as part of a nation wide design competition [P/A Staff, 1994].
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Figure 3 is an image of the winning design of the Virtual Building for Forum/America by Corvin Matie and Afshin Lavee-Motlagh. They are architecture students at the University of Texas - Arlington. (This image has been reprinted with the permission of Progressive Architecture, Penton Publishing).
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It appears that CD-ROM's will grow to constitute a popular source of educational content in the future. Although little work has been done by architects in this area so far, what is available demonstrates that architects are able to develop this niche either as developers of architecturally related educational software or as designers of backgrounds, artifacts and environments for other educational software products.
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Research on Cyberspace & Virtual Reality
Architects are also involved in the research and development of networked digital space (i.e., cyberspace and VR). However, in contrast to what has previously been discussed, most of this research is 'basic', that is, it is interested in the study of the 'architecture of cyberspace' and not in 'cyberspace architecture'[*8] and of VR interface design and not of VR applications.
Two major areas of investigation are (a) the examination of the very element that constitutes cyberspace: data and (b) the study of VR systems. Here we also found great opportunities for the practice of digital architecture.
The first line of investigation is concerned with cyberspace as an information space. Studies of how to visualize, store, represent, navigate, locate, and access data, are being conducted at several institutions, including The University of Texas at Austin and The University of Utah. This research assumes the viability of a 3D, immersive cyberspace within a foreseeable future which ongoing developments of the internet seem to support - see the Sequoia Project below. Models are drawn from urban and building typologies, scientific visualization and the arts. Marcos Novak and Michael Benedikt have been involved in researching visual databases and how data will be represented in cyberspace [Benedikt, 1991; Novak, 1991]. One of us has just received a university faculty grant to study the design of 3D informational environments.
The second line of investigation is that of developing interfaces and operating systems and studying the architectural implications of VR systems. Several institutions are working on this area, for example The University of North Carolina, Georgia Tech, The University of Manitoba, and The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Gottfried Meyer-Kress, who has been involved in VR research at the University of Illinois, has indicated that some of their current developments need to incorporate another level of orientation to aid in way finding that is based on architecture [Anders, 1994]. Individuals are also involved in this area of VR research and limited practice. Clayton Graham and Jim Leftwich, trained as an architect and industrial designer respectively, for example, have been working on the development of future operating systems and interfaces for various clients. Each has incorporated architecture as a metaphor for organization and orientation [Anders, 1994]. Finally, Richard Perron and Bruce Dexter [1994] are working in notation systems for interfaces that help designers interact and create in VR.
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Figures 4 & 5 are examples of the work being done by Clayton Graham and Jim Leftwich respectively. Graham's is a design for an operating system that is a 3D immersive environment. (These images have been reprinted with the permission of Progressive Architecture, Penton Publishing).
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Shopping is another area that is currently being researched and developed in VR. Marc Fredrickson and Dema Zlotin for example, from the University of California at San Diego, have been designing a prototype for this new type of shopping environment. In The Bag began as a masters thesis in architecture and has developed into a VR prototype through continued research. It is a 3D, immersive environment that allows individuals the opportunity to go shopping in a virtual mall [House, 1994].
Although there is currently no significant market in developing VR applications, operating systems and 3D interfaces, except for basic research funding, there are potential markets for the near future. Cyberspace is the fastest growing community on Earth (10% per month - [Jacobs, 1994; Negroponte, 1995]) and will likely be a long lasting market in the future. This can be seen from the explosion in the consumption of cyberspace related magazines (Mondo 2000, VR World, Wired, etc.) as well as the growing interest in the popular press (e.g., Newsweek, The New York Times, Time, etc.).
There are many other opportunities that cannot be described in detail here, but warrant attention as they relate to short term and long term markets. Some involve the development of Multi-User Domains (MUD's) on the corporate and entertainment levels such as WorldsAway (animated graphical on-line chat) by Fuji and CompuServe [Staff, 1995]. In addition, ongoing work on the World Wide Web (WWW) shows the use of geographical and urban metaphors for the organization of information (e.g., Apple's e-World). Other projects include Sequoia 2000 or TECATE [Herbst, 1995; Wanger, 1995]. TECATE involves the development of a 3D interface for navigating through current cyberspace (the Internet via the WWW).
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Figure 7 is an image of Apple's eWorld (Copyright © 1994 Apple Computer Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission.) that is available to Macintosh users. It is an on-line system and services are accessed by selecting the building which represents the desired service, as is done in the real built environment. If you need information on computer systems, you select on the Computer shaped building. General information can be found by selecting the Information Kiosk. Each building is representative of the services provided.
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As the digital revolution spreads throughout today and tomorrow's world, important new opportunities for exciting architectural work will open. For the realm of digital space, whether it be CD-ROM games, virtual reality systems, or desktop educational software, involves the creation of multimedia environments that possess architecture.
It should be clear, however, that the digital markets presented here will not just be given to architects and design professionals. In contrast to the current practice of architecture, there are likely to be no regulations that require individuals to hire architects for digital design. Hence there is an important question. How can architects secure for themselves a place in the future digital markets? The answer may be that work will come through competition in providing quality services at competitive prices and with the aid of aggressive marketing.
Architects engaged in this electronic reality will have different roles and will need to be trained accordingly. This raises the issues of (1) how to reconceptualize what has been traditionally understood as 'architecture', (2) what the roles of architecture schools and educators are; and (3) what the potential division between traditional architects and digital architects may be.
To be competitive, architects will need qualifications that put them above others in the marketplace. These of course include the traditional 3D visualization, space planning, creative problem solving and design team management. However, in light of the potential markets, architects will also need to develop other skills to thrive in the world of digital architecture. Randal Walser and Michael Benedikt have described some of them:
"The talents of a cyberspace architect will be akin to those of traditional architects, film directors, novelists, generals, coaches, playwrights, video game designers. The job of the cyberspace designer will be to make the experience seem real." [Walser in Rheingold, 1991: 190]
"For cyberspace will require constant planning and organization. The structures within it will require design, and the people who design these structures will be called cyberspace architects. Schooled in computer science and programming (the equivalent of "construction"), in graphics, and in abstract design, schooled also along with their brother "real-space" architects ..." [Benedikt, 1991: 18]
The architects of digital space will need to be trained in multimedia (video, film, etc.), computer modeling, rendering and animation, computer programming and interface design along with the traditional training of visualization, space planning, etc. Digital architects of the future will have the ability to both design and construct their visions, albeit in virtual environments.
Should architects choose to ignore the actual and potential digital work opportunities or not to develop a vision of digital futures, architects will lose these markets to other professionals as they have lost the construction management market and other portions of their profession in the past. However, to lose out on such great potential would be a significant, if not the largest loss of all.
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[*1] Classical reality refers to the traditional built environment as well as the physical, social and cultural worlds associated with it.
[*2] Myst® is a trademark of Cyan, Inc., and is marketed by Brøderbund.
[*3] For example, Aaron Conners, the writer of Under a Killing Moon, indicated that many of the individuals that currently work in their art department, performing design development tasks, have art and design training and backgrounds. The major skills they look for in an employee are whether one can quickly create (computer models and renderings) original and creative environments. Maxis, the creators of SimCity 2000, SimTown and SimTower, have also been looking for artistic oriented individuals to aid in the design of cities, buildings, etc. for their software developments.
[*4] Archimage is an architectural firm that in 1991 ventured into other architectural markets due to a recession. They moved more into the digital environment by performing computer imagery. This work generates approximately 80% of all their income. They now offer a wide range of services in this area from corporation communications and TV station identity to animations. Their work for Nintendo is just an example of the commissions they receive and the type of powerful clients they have been able to acquire. Arguably, Archimage has received these kinds of commissions over more traditional animators because they are an architectural firm. Kaderlan, N., "It's Still A Design Firm - Or Is It?" Architectural Record, (1994): 28-31.
[*5] Dreamworks SKG is a recently formed entertainment company which combines the talents and resources of entertaining giants Steven Spielberg, Jeffery Katzenberg and David Geffen.
[*6] For example, see the work of Diane Gromala (University of Washington School of Communication) and Marcos Novak (University of Texas School of Architecture).
[*7] This is according to estimates by Dataquest, a market research firm. The major areas seeing the growth are in games, reference books and educational titles. Reuters, "Market Triples For CD-ROM's, "The New York Times, (1995).
[*8] "Architecture of cyberspace" is the infrastructure, environmental qualities and the larger organizational nature of digital space. "Cyberspace architecture" consists of structures, objects or artifacts occupying an already given digital space.
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Anders, P., "The Architecture of Cyberspace," Progressive Architecture, (October, 1994): 78-81, 106.
Benedikt, M., "Introduction," Cyberspace: First Steps, edited by Benedikt, M., Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, (1991): 1-25.
Benedikt, M., "Cyberspace: Some Proposals," Cyberspace: First Steps, edited by Benedikt, M., Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, (1991): 119-224.
Fabrikant, G., "Dreamworks and Microsoft in Multimedia Venture," The New York Times, (March 23, 1995): D8.
Herbst, C., "Coming To A Computer Near You: A 3-D Visualization On Internet," HPCC Week, (February 9, 1995): 3, 8.
House, G., "Going to the Shopping Mall Via VR," Virtual Reality World, 2:6, (December, 1994): 41-43.
Jacobs, K., "Waiting for the Millennium: Part III. Dinosauring," Metropolis, 14:3 (October, 1994): 86-97.
Kaderlan, N., "It's Still A Design Firm - Or Is It?" Architectural Record, (March, 1994): 28-31.
Krueger, M., Artificial Reality II, (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1991).
Krueger, M., Artificial Reality, (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1983).
Negroponte, N., Being Digital, (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1995).
Novak, M., "Liquid Architectures in Cyberspace," Cyberspace: First Steps, edited by Benedikt, M., Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, (1991): 225-254.
P/A Staff, "News: Winners of Competition for Virtual Building," Progressive Architecture, (August, 1994): 15.
Perron, R. and Dexter, B., "Notation, Virtual Reality Design Environments and The Continuous Environmental Experience," Collected Abstracts of the 4th Cyberspace Conference, Banff: The Banff Centre for the Arts, (1994): 18.
Pulley, B., "New York Striving to Become Technology's Creative Center," The New York Times, (February 13, 1995): A1, A13.
Reuters, "Market Triples For CD-ROM's," The New York Times, (March 23, 1995): D8.
Rheingold, H., Virtual Community, (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1993).
Rheingold, H., Virtual Reality, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991).
Staff, "Animated Online Chat," Information & Interactive Services Report, (March 10, 1995): 3.
Wanger, L. "TECATE," World Wide Web Homepage, http://www.sdsc.edu/SDSC/Research/Visualization/Tecate/tecate.html (1995/no longer available-1997).
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